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After obtaining a promise from the Lord that he would not confound the language of Jared and his friends, the Lord commanded the brother of Jared (who is never named) to "gather together thy flocks, both male and female, of every kind; and also of the seed of the earth of every kind . . . . I will go before thee into a land which is choice above all the lands of the earth. And there will I bless thee and thy seed . . . . And there shall be none greater than the nation which I will raise up unto me of thy seed, upon all the face of the earth" (Ether 1:41-43). This, of course, recalls the Lord's commandment to Noah to preserve male and female specimens of every living thing. The Lord also made a special covenant with Abraham: "Get thee out of thy country, and from thy kindred, and from thy father's house unto a land that I will shew thee: and I will make of thee a great nation, and I will bless thee, and make thy name great" (Gen. 12:1-2). Jared and his followers journeyed northward to the valley of Nimrod and crossed many waters in barges until they came to a great sea. They remained for four years on the shore of the sea in a place which they called Moriancumer.

Before sailing to the New World, the Jaredites built eight small, lightweight barges: "And they were built after a manner that they were exceedingly tight, even that they would hold water like unto a dish; and the bottom thereof was tight like unto a dish; and the sides therof were tight like unto a dish; and the ends thereof were peaked; and the top thereof was tight like unto a dish; and the length thereof was the length of a tree; and the door thereof, when it was shut, was tight like unto a dish" (Ether 2:17). Apparently, these barges were more or less disposable, because the Jaredites had built barges during the course of their journey to the great sea, but at the sea they built new barges, rather than use the ones that they had already constructed. The design of the barges may have been inspired by Herodotus's description of Babylonian boats.

I will next describe the thing which surprised me most of all in this country, after Babylon itself: I mean the boats which ply down the Euphrates to the city. These boats are circular in shape and made of hide; they build them in Armenia to the northward of Assyria, where they cut withies to make the frames and then stretch skins taut on the under side for the body of the craft; they are not fined-off or tapered in any way at bow or stern, but quite round like a shield. . . . The boats vary a great deal in size; some are very big, the biggest of all having a capacity of some fourteen tons. Every boat carries a live donkey - the larger ones several - and when they reach Babylon and the cargoes have been offered for sale, the boats are broken up, the frames and straw sold and the hides loaded on the donkeys' backs for the return journey overland to Armenia. . . . Back in Armenia with their donkeys, the men build another lot of boats to the same design. (Herodotus 1972, 119-20)

The barges were so tight that the brother of Jared asked the Lord how they were going to have air to breathe: "And the Lord said unto the brother of Jared: Behold, thou shalt make a hole in the top, and also in the bottom; and when thou shalt suffer for air thou shalt unstop the hole and receive air. And if it be so that the water come in upon thee, behold, ye shall stop the hole, that ye may not perish in the flood" (Ether 2:20). Here we have another parallel in Gulliver's Travels. When Gulliver became the prisoner of giants in the land of Brobdingnag, he was carried around in a traveling box: "On the roof of my closet, just over the middle of the hammock, I ordered the joiner to cut out a hole of a foot square, to give me air in hot weather, as I slept; which hole I shut, at pleasure, with a board that drew backwards and forwards through a groove" (Swift 1985, 130). This box, with Gulliver in it, was picked up by an eagle and dropped into the sea: "Every joint of it was well grooved; and the door did not move on hinges, but up and down like a sash, which kept my closet so tight that very little water came in. I got with much difficulty out of my hammock, having first ventured to draw back the slip-board on the roof already mentioned, contrived on purpose to let in air, for want of which I found myself almost stifled" (Swift 1985, 132).

The next concern of the brother of Jared was how to provide light in the barges. Accordingly, he went to mount Shelem, where he "did molten out of a rock sixteen small stones; and they were white and clear, even as transparent glass; and he did carry them in his hands upon the top of the mount" (Ether 3:1). Upon his request, the Lord touched the stones with his finger, which caused them to shine forth. Similarly, Moses cut two tables out of stone and carried them to the top of mount Sinai, where the Lord wrote upon them with his finger. When Moses came down from the mount, his face shone. The purpose of the brother of Jared was to put two of the stones in each of the eight barges to provide light. This is probably derived from Jewish legends about a stone which was carried in Noah's ark: "Rabbinical tradition tells of a wonderful luminous stone placed by Noah in the Ark. This stone shone more brilliantly by day than by night, and served to distinguish the day from the night when, during the flood, neither sun nor moon could be seen" (Kunz [1913] 1971, 161).

While the brother of Jared was upon mount Shelem, the Lord showed him visions of the past and future inhabitants of the earth. The Lord commanded him to write down the visions and seal them up, along with two stones which would provide the means for translating the writings. It is not clear whether the brother of Jared carried the record with him across the ocean or hid it along the shore of the great sea. This may have reference to another Jewish myth. It is said that before Noah built the ark, the angel Raphael gave him a holy book, which had been in the possession of Adam. From this book Noah gained much wisdom and learned how to construct the ark. Some versions of the tale say that Noah hid the book before entering the ark and then received another book after the ark had landed on mount Ararat, while others say that Noah carried the book into the ark and that the sapphires with which it was covered provided light during the voyage (Rappoport 1987, 1:222; Graves 1983, 113). This book was later passed down from Shem to Solomon.

Moroni states, concerning the visions of the brother of Jared: "they were forbidden to come unto the children of men until after that he [Christ] should be lifted up upon the cross; and for this cause did king Mosiah keep them, that they should not come unto the world until after Christ should show himself unto his people. And after Christ truly had showed himself unto his people he commanded that they should be made manifest" (Ether 4:1-2). These writings were kept by Alma and his descendants, apparently until Christ's appearance, although the Book of Mormon makes no mention of them during Jesus' ministry. In a similar story, Plutarch relates that a woman in Pontus bore a child named Silenus, who she maintained was the son of Apollo: "Another report, also, was procured from Delphi and circulated in Sparta, that there were some very old oracles which were kept by the priests in private writings; and they were not to be meddled with, neither was it lawful to read them, till one in aftertimes should come, descended from Apollo, and, on giving some known token to the keepers, should take the books in which the oracles were" (Plutarch n.d., 542).

After the Jaredites arrived at the promised land and multiplied, they desired to have a king. The brother of Jared opposed the idea, but Orihah, the son of Jared, agreed to become the first king. He was succeeded by his son Kib. Corihor, Kib's son, rebelled, went to live in the land of Nehor, gathered together an army, and took Kib captive in Moron, but Kib was later restored by his son Shule. The text says that Shule "came to the hill Ephraim, and he did molten out of the hill, and made swords out of steel for those whom he had drawn away with him; and after he had armed them with swords he returned to the city Nehor, and gave battle unto his brother Corihor, by which means he obtained the kingdom and restored it unto his father Kib" (Ether 7:9). This is patterned after the Book of Judges, which states that Eglon, the king of Moab, defeated the Israelites and forced them to serve him for eighteen years. But the Lord raised up Ehud, and "Ehud made him a dagger which had two edges, of a cubit length" (Judges 3:16). With this dagger, Ehud killed Eglon and escaped to mount Ephraim, where he roused the people and led them to victory against the Moabites. Shule had also gone to the hill Ephraim to make swords, before defeating Corihor.

Shule succeeded Kib as king, but two sons of Corihor, named Noah and Cohor, rebelled and took Shule captive in Moron. However, the sons of Shule stole into the house of Noah at night, slew him, and once again placed Shule upon the throne. Similarly, Jabin, the king of Hazor, and Sisera, his military commander, oppressed the Israelites for twenty years. Then Deborah and Barak raised an army and went to battle against Sisera. Sisera sought refuge in the tent of Jael, but as he slept, she hammered a nail through his temples.

Shule was succeeded by his son Omer, but Omer's son Jared rebelled and went to live in the land of Heth. After gaining half of the kingdom, Jared took Omer captive. However, the sons of Omer defeated Jared and restored their father. Similarly, 1 Kings 16:21-22 says: "Then were the people of Israel divided into two parts: half of the people followed Tibni the son of Ginath to make him king; and half followed Omri. But the people that followed Omri prevailed against the people that followed Tibni the son of Ginath: so Tibni died, and Omri reigned."

The daughter of Jared wished to help her father regain the kingdom and said to him, "let my father send for Akish, the son of Kimnor; and behold, I am fair, and I will dance before him, and I will please him, that he will desire me to wife; wherefore if he shall desire of thee that ye shall give unto him me to wife, then shall ye say: I will give her if ye will bring unto me the head of my father, the king" (Ether 8:10). After Herod imprisoned John the Baptist, the daughter of Herodias danced before Herod on his birthday and pleased him so much that he swore that he would give her whatever she asked. She asked for the head of John the Baptist. Jared was himself later beheaded by the followers of Akish, as he sat upon the throne.

Omer was warned by the Lord in a dream to depart out of the land, and he fled to a place called Ablom. This recalls Joseph, who was warned by an angel in a dream to flee with Mary and Jesus to Egypt. When Akish became king, he imprisoned one of his sons, who died. Another son named Nimrah fled and joined Omer at Ablom. However, other sons of Akish warred against their father until almost all of the people were killed, after which Omer was restored. Ablom probably refers to Geshur, to which Absalom, the son of David, fled after killing Amnon, his brother. Omer was joined by Nimrah at Ablom, just as David, who had fled from Saul, was joined by Abiathar, who escaped the destruction of the city of Nob. Jonathan also visited David at Horesh. The wars between Akish and his sons may reflect the fact that although Achish the Philistine gave Ziklag to David, David slew a great many of the people who inhabited the surrounding land. Absalom and David also battled each other when Absalom tried to wrest the kingdom from David.

The Book of Ether says that in the days of Heth there was a "great dearth" on the land, and people started to die in great numbers. In addition, "there came forth poisonous serpents also upon the face of the land, and did poison many people. And it came to pass that their flocks began to flee before the poisonous serpents, towards the land southward, which was called by the Nephites Zarahemla. And it came to pass that there were many of them which did perish by the way . . . . And it came to pass that the people did follow the course of the beasts, and did devour the carcasses of them which fell by the way" (Ether 9:31-34). Sallust says that Marius was presented with the challenge of crossing a desert to Capsa, "for, except the immediate neighbourhood of the town, the whole district is desolate, uncultivated, waterless, and infested by deadly serpents, which like all wild animals are made fiercer by scarcity of food, and especially by thirst" (Sallust 1963, 124-25). Furthermore, there had been a "dearth of corn," because the fields were parched. Marius therefore drove cattle ahead of his army and each day distributed a ration of cattle to his men, who made water containers out of the hides, after eating the animals. In this way he was able to reach Capsa. In addition, Herodotus says that at one time snakes swarmed into the suburbs of Sardis, and that the Neuri "were forced to quit their country by snakes, which appeared all over the place in great numbers, while still more invaded them from the uninhabited region to the north, until life became so unendurable that there was nothing for it but to move out" (Herodotus 1972, 72, 305).

In the days of Lib, the poisonous serpents were destroyed, and men "did go into the land southward, to hunt food for the people of the land, for the land was covered with animals of the forest. . . . And they did preserve the land southward for a wilderness, to get game" (Ether 10:19, 21). According to Polybius, the royal family of Macedon was devoted to hunting, "and the Macedonians had set aside the most suitable parts of the country for the breeding of game. During the war against Rome these districts had been as carefully maintained as ever before, but because of the succession of national crises they had never been hunted, with the consequence that there was an abundance of big game of every kind" (Polybius 1979, 533). The Book of Ether says that Lib became a great hunter (as Nimrod is called a mighty hunter in Gen. 10), and Polybius states that Scipio devoted all of his time to hunting, while he was in Macedonia, and became quite skilled in the sport.

A curious passage in the Book of Ether suggests a derivation from Caesar. Ether 9:19 says that the Jaredites "had horses, and asses, and there were elephants and cureloms and cumoms; all of which were useful unto man, and more especially the elephants and cureloms and cumoms." The Book of Mormon does not describe these animals, and Mormon scholars have speculated about their identity. However, Casesar writes, concerning the Hercynian forest in German territory, "It is known that there are in the forest many kinds of wild animals not seen elsewhere; some of these seem worth mentioning because they are very different from those found in other parts of the world" (Caesar 1985, 126). He describes three types of creatures: one is an ox shaped like a deer, with a horn growing from the middle of its forehead; the second is called an elk, but resembles a goat, and its legs have no joints; the third is called an auroch and is slightly smaller than an elephant, but can move swiftly. It is probable that the cureloms, cumoms, and elephants of the Book of Ether are Caesar's ox, elk, and auroch.

Riplakish, the son of Shez, took many wives and concubines, laid a heavy tax upon the people, constructed many buildings, including "an exceedingly beautiful throne," and forced people to labor. The people rose up in rebellion and killed Riplakish. Morianton then made himself king, eased the burdens of the people and built many cities, but was cut off from the Lord because of his sins. This description is certainly derived from the account of Solomon, who also took many wives and concubines, constructed a temple, and laid a heavy burden upon the people. After Solomon died, the people rebelled against his son Rehoboam and made Jeroboam king. He built the cities of Shechem and Penuel, but sinned in setting up two golden calves for the people to worship.

Morianton was succeeded by his son Kim, an unrighteous king, who was taken captive by his brother. Kim's son Levi won the kingdom and served righteously, as did the two succeeding kings, Corom and Kish. The captivity of Kim parallels the raid of Shishak, king of Egypt, upon Jerusalem, during the reign of Rehoboam. Rehoboam's son Abijam was an unrighteous king, but he was followed by Asa and Jehoshaphat, who did what was right in the eyes of the Lord.

Kish was succeeded by Lib, but the kingdom was taken away from Hearthom, the son of Lib (the text does not say by whom). Hearthom spent the remainder of his days in captivity, as did the succeeding four generations, consisting of Heth, Aaron, Amnigaddah, and Coriantum. These five kings correspond to Menahem, Pekahiah, Pekah, Hoshea, and Hezekiah. During Menahem's reign, the kingdom of Israel was attacked by Pul, king of Assyria. When Pekah became king, Tiglath-pileser captured many cities of Israel and also took Damascus. Hoshea became a vassal of Shalmaneser; when Hoshea tried to rebel, Shalmaneser imprisoned him, besieged Samaria, and carried the Israelites off to Assyria. Hezekiah also attempted to rebel against Assyria, but Sennacherib captured many cities of Judah, and Hezekiah had to pay a tribute. Thus the captivity of Hearthom and his descendants parallels the repeated attacks of Assyria and the captivity of the inhabitants of Israel.

Com, the son of Coriantum, gained control over half of the kingdom, and then after battling a king named Amgid, he obtained the whole kingdom. Similarly, when David was anointed as king over Judah, Abner declared Ishbosheth, the son of Saul, to be king over Israel, but when Abner and Ishbosheth were killed by David's men, David was made king over both Judah and Israel.

In the days of Com, many prophets began prophesying the destruction of the people, unless they repented. This angered the people, and the prophets had to seek protection from Com. But when Shiblom succeeded Com, he ordered that the prophets be put to death. Following this, a great many people perished because of wars, famine, and pestilence, "insomuch that there was a great destruction, such an one as never had been known upon the face of the earth" (Ether 11:7). Similarly, when Jezebel, the wife of Ahab, cut off the prophets of the Lord, Obadiah hid a hundred of them in a cave. Then Elijah began prophesying the complete destruction of the house of Ahab. Elisha, the successor of Elijah, sent a prophet to anoint Jehu as king of Israel, and Jehu fulfilled the prophecy of Elijah by killing Jezebel and all that remained of the house of Ahab in Jezreel and Samaria.

After Shiblom was slain, Seth reigned, but he was brought into captivity. Seth represents Josiah, who battled Pharaoh Neco at Megiddo and was killed. Seth was succeeded by two wicked kings, Ahah, the son of Seth, and Ethem, a descendant of Ahah. These two kings correspond to the wicked kings Manasseh and Amon, who preceded the reign of Josiah.

When Moron, the son of Ethem, became king, the people were led to rebel by a secret combination, and a mighty man (who is unnamed) seized half of the kingdom. Some years later Moron was able to regain the lost portion of his kingdom, but another mighty man (who is also unnamed) took control of the entire kingdom and placed Moron in captivity, where Moron begat a son named Coriantor. Moron represents both Jehoahaz and Jehoiakim. Jehoahaz succeeded Josiah, but Pharaoh Neco put him in bonds and carried him to Egypt, while placing his son Jehoiakim on the throne of Judah. Jehoiakim was made the vassal of the king of Babylon, and when he rebelled, Nebuchadnezzar seized all of that part of Palestine which had belonged to the king of Egypt. When Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem, Jehoiakim gave himself up, and he, along with about ten thousand others, was carried captive to Babylon. The mighty men who battled Moron parallel Neco and Nebuchadnezzar. Coriantor corresponds to Jehoiachin, the son of Jehoiakim, who became king of Judah. Coriantor lived all of his days in captivity and begat a son named Ether.

Coriantor was succeeded by Coriantumr. Ether became a prophet and started warning the people that if they did not repent, they would be destroyed. Coriantumr corresponds to Zedekiah, and Ether represents Jeremiah, who also warned Zedekiah and the inhabitants of Judah that if they did not repent, the city of Jerusalem would be destroyed.

The people rejected the warnings of Ether, "and he hid himself in the cavity of a rock by day, and by night he went forth viewing the things which should come upon the people" (Ether 13:13). Similarly, Josephus hid himself from the Romans in a deep pit with a large den: "So in the day-time he hid himself from the enemy . . . and in the night-time he got up out of the den, and looked about" (Josephus 1974, 1:256).

A great war commenced between Coriantumr and Shared. After Shared was killed, his brother Gilead took his place, slew a part of Coriantumr's army and then placed himself upon the throne in Moron. Meanwhile, Coriantumr lived in the wilderness for two years and gathered together more men. Parts of this story recall the account of David and Absalom. Absalom secretly gained supporters, proclaimed himself king, and entered Jerusalem, forcing David to flee. Thus both Gilead and Absalom usurped the position of the king, while both Coriantumr and David lived in the wilderness.

Gilead was murdered by his high priest, who was himself killed in a secret pass by a man named Lib. Coriantumr marched against Lib and killed him in battle. Lib's brother Shiz pursued Coriantumr, "and he did overthrow many cities, and he did slay both women and children, and he did burn the cities" (Ether 14:17). The war spread throughout the land: "the people began to flock together in armies, throughout all the face of the land. . . . And so great and lasting had been the war . . . that the whole face of the land was covered with the bodies of the dead" (Ether 14:19-21). Similarly, David was pursued by Absalom across the Jordan to Mahanaim: "So the people went out into the field against Israel: and the battle was in the wood of Ephraim; where the people of Israel were slain before the servants of David, and there was there a great slaughter that day of twenty thousand men. For the battle was there scattered over the face of all the country" (2 Sam. 18:6-8). The path of destruction cut by Shiz also reflects the march of Moses and the Israelites toward the land of Canaan, after leaving mount Seir near the Red Sea. They turned northward and came into conflict with Sihon, king of Heshbon: "And we took all his cities at that time, and utterly destroyed the men, and the women, and the little ones, of every city, we left none to remain" (Deut. 2:34). They dealt a similar fate to Og, king of Bashan, destroying many cities and their inhabitants. They then pitched camp on the plains of Moab: "And Moab was sore afraid of the people, because they were many: and Moab was distressed because of the children of Israel" (Num. 22:3). Similarly, the Book of Ether states: "And there went a fear of Shiz throughout all the land; yea, a cry went forth throughout the land -- Who can stand before the army of Shiz? Behold, he sweepeth the earth before him!" (Ether 14:18).

The army of Shiz pursued Coriantumr to an area near the seashore: "And they pitched their tents in the valley of Corihor; and Coriantumr pitched his tents in the valley of Shurr. Now the valley of Shurr was near the hill Comnor; wherefore, Coriantumr did gather his armies together upon the hill Comnor" (Ether 14:27-28). During the civil war between Caesar and Pompey, Pompey marched to Dyrrachium, near the sea, and built a camp on a height called Petra, while Caesar's men occupied several high hills near Pompey's camp. In battles around the hill Comnor, the armies of Shiz were driven back twice, but the third time, Coriantumr was deeply wounded. However, since so many people had been killed, Shiz commanded his men to return to camp, instead of pursuing the enemy. Caesar and Pompey fought a series of battles around Dyrrachium, but Pompey got the upper hand, and Caesar's men fled. Plutarch says that Pompey, "instead of putting the finishing stroke to his great success, retired as soon as he had driven the routed enemy inside their camp" (Plutarch 1972, 283).

Once again the armies of Shiz and Coriantumr met in battle, but when Coriantumr saw that he was about to be defeated, he fled to the waters of Ripliancum. There he was successful against the armies of Shiz, and Shiz fled southward to Ogath. Coriantumr followed and pitched camp near the hill Ramah. Similarly, after being routed by Pompey, Caesar retreated eastward into Thessaly, but defeated Pompey's forces at the battle of Pharsalia. Pompey fled to the sea coast and set sail for Pelusium in Egypt, and Caesar followed. In Egypt another civil war was raging between Ptolemy and his sister Cleopatra, whom Ptolemy had driven from the throne. Caesar fought battles with the Egyptians around the Pharos tower, and Pompey was killed and beheaded by Ptolemy's men.

It was no longer a matter of armies fighting each other; the whole populace was armed, including women and children. During the day, battles raged around the hill Ramah: "when it was night they were weary, and retired to their camps; and after they had retired to their camps they took up a howling and a lamentation for the loss of the slain of their people; and so great were their cries, their howlings and lamentations, that they did rend the air exceedingly" (Ether 15:16). According to Plutarch, when Marius pursued the Ambrones into their camp, the women fell upon them with swords and axes: "After killing great numbers of the Ambrones the Romans withdrew and night fell. . . . from this huge host all through the night there arose and echoed among the mountains and over the valley a cry of lamentation -- not a cry that sounded like the wailing and mourning of human beings, but something which, while expressing imprecations, menaces, and complaints, was more like the howling of wild animals. As the awful noise filled the whole plain, so were the Romans filled with terror" (Plutarch 1972, 33).

The people fought for seven days, until only a handful on each side survived. On the eighth day, all were killed except Shiz and Coriantumr. Shiz passed out from loss of blood, and Coriantumr took the opportunity to cut off his head. The Book of Ether gives this description of the death of Shiz: "when Coriantumr had leaned upon his sword, that he rested a little, he smote off the head of Shiz. And it came to pass that after he had smitten off the head of Shiz, that Shiz raised up on his hands and fell; and after that he had struggled for breath, he died" (Ether 15:30-31). Critics have wondered how Shiz could have struggled for breath, after Coriantumr had already cut off his head. But it is perhaps no more confusing than Aeneas' description of the death of Priam: "'His tall body was left lying headless on the shore, and by it the head hacked from his shoulders: a corpse without a name. Then for the first time a wild horror gripped me. When I saw King Priam breathing out his life with that ghastly wound . . . .'"(Virgil 1958, 67).

The mortal battle between Shiz and Coriantumr also recalls the story of Saul: "And the Philistines gathered themselves together, and came and pitched in Shunem: and Saul gathered all Israel together, and they pitched in Gilboa. And when Saul saw the host of the Philistines, he was afraid, and his heart greatly trembled" (1 Sam. 28:4-5). The Philistines slaughtered the men of Israel on mount Gilboa and killed three of Saul's sons. The Bible is ambiguous about the death of Saul. 1 Samuel 31 says that after being sorely wounded, Saul fell on his own sword, but in 2 Samuel 1, a young Amalekite, who survived the battle at Gilboa, tells David that he found Saul leaning upon his spear and that Saul asked him to slay him. In any case, when the Philistines found Saul's body, they cut off his head. Coriantumr lived long enough to be discovered by the people of Zarahemla, just as the young Amalekite survived to reach the camp of David.

Parts of the story of Coriantumr parallel the life of Alexander the Great. During the battle in the valley of Gilgal, "Shared wounded Coriantumr in his thigh, that he did not go to battle again for the space of two years" (Ether 13:31). When Coriantumr marched to the land of Moron, "Lib did smite upon his arm that he was wounded" (Ether 14:12). At the hill Comnor, "Shiz smote upon Coriantumr that he gave him many deep wounds; and Coriantumr, having lost his blood, fainted, and was carried away as though he were dead" (Ether 14:30). At the waters of Ripliancum, "Coriantumr was wounded again, and he fainted with the loss of blood" (Ether 15:9). Alexander was also wounded many times in battle. According to Arrian, when Alexander besieged Gaza, he received a serious wound when a missile from a catapult penetrated his shoulder. In a battle near the Tanais river, Alexander was shot through the leg by an arrow, which broke his fibula. At other times, Alexander received a violent blow on the head and neck by a stone, and was again wounded in the shoulder and thigh. While preparing to meet Darius, Alexander had become so sick that he had to delay any military activity for many months. Alexander received his most serious wounds during his campaign in India, when he attacked the fortress of a tribe called the Malli. After leaping down inside the fortress from the wall, Alexander was surrounded by Mallians, one of whom shot an arrow at him.

The shaft was so well aimed and struck him with such force that it pierced his breastplate and lodged in his chest between the ribs. The impact was so violent that Alexander staggered back and sank to his knees . . . . he was wounded over and over again, and at last received a blow on the neck from a club which forced him to lean against the wall . . . . At this moment the Macedonians swarmed round him, snatched him up as he lost consciousness, and carried him to his tent. Immediately the rumour ran through the camp that he had been killed. Meanwhile his attendants with great difficulty sawed off the wooden shaft of the arrow and thus succeeded in removing his breastplate; they then had to cut out the arrow-head, which was embedded between his ribs . . . . When it was extracted the king fainted away and came very near to death, but finally he recovered. (Plutarch 1973, 320-21)

There seem to be correspondences between Plutarch's account and the description of the battle between Shiz and Coriantumr at the hill Comnor. In addition, the book of Ether emphasizes the fact that "Lib was a man of great stature, more than any other man among all the people" (Ether 14:10). Arrian and Plutarch also say that Porus, an Indian who battled Alexander, was a huge man.

We should also note a stylistic parallel. The Book of Mormon frequently uses the word "did" with verbs to form the past tense. For example, the Book of Alma says: "they did receive all the poor of the Zoramites that came over unto them; and they did nourish them, and did clothe them, and did give unto them lands for their inheritance; and they did administer unto them according to their wants. Now this did stir up the Zoramites to anger" (Alma 35:9-10). This use of "did" is characteristic of the style of some old documents, as for example, this passage from the Rites of Durham: "finding the chest that he did lie in very strongly bound with iron, then the goldsmith did take a great fore hammer of a smith and did break the said chest open . . . then when the goldsmith did perceive that he had broken one of his legs when he did break up the chest, he was very sorry for it" (Laing & Laing 1982, 145-46).

The Interpreters

Isaac Hale, Emma Smith's father, said that Joseph Smith pretended to interpret the characters by placing a stone in his hat, covering his face with the hat. Emma said that Joseph used the Urim and Thummim to translate, until Martin Harris lost the manuscript, and then he continued by using a small, dark colored stone placed in his hat, with his face buried in the hat. In 1829 Martin Harris told a newspaper: "By placing the spectacles in a hat and looking into it, Smith interprets the characters into the English language" (Quinn 1987, 145). Harris was interviewed in 1882, and an account of his statement was published in the Millennial Star (6 Feb. 1882): "By aid of the seer stone, sentences would appear and were read by the Prophet and written by Martin, and when finished he would say, 'Written,' and if correctly written that sentence would disappear and another appear in its place, but if not written correctly it remained until corrected, so that the translation was just as it was engraven on the plates, precisely in the language then used" (Whalen 1967, 31). David Whitmer gave several accounts of the translation process. One which appeared in the Deseret Evening News (24 December 1885) stated: "After affixing the magical spectacles to his eyes, Smith would take the plates and translate the characters one at a time. The graven characters would appear in succession to the seer, and directly under the character, when viewed through the glasses, would be the translation in English" (Lamb 1887, 241). However, in another 1885 interview, Whitmer told the same story as Emma about replacing the Urim and Thummim with a stone. In 1887 Whitmer published a pamphlet entitled An Address to All Believers in Christ, in which he gave this account: "Joseph Smith would put the seer stone into a hat, and put his face in the hat, drawing it closely around his face to exclude the light; and in the darkness the spiritual light would shine. A piece of something resembling parchment would appear, and on that appeared the writing. One character at a time would appear, and under it was the interpretation in English. Brother Joseph would read off the English to Oliver Cowdery, who was his principal scribe, and when it was written down and repeated to Brother Joseph to see if it was correct, then it would disappear, and another character with the interpretation would appear" (Whitmer 1887, 12).

In Alma 37, Alma transfers the twenty-four Jaredite plates and the interpreters to his son Helaman, and states: "And the Lord said: I will prepare unto my servant Gazelem, a stone, which shall shine forth in darkness unto light, that I may discover unto my people who serve me, that I may discover unto them the works of their brethren, yea, their secret works, their works of darkness, and their wickedness and abominations" (Alma 37:23). Following this, Alma again refers to "these interpreters," and says that their function was the same as the stone of Gazelem, to "bring forth out of darkness unto light all their secret works and their abominations" (Alma 37:25). The Book of Mormon does not give us any further information about Gazelem or his stone. Was Gazelem the brother of Jared (who is never named in the Book of Mormon), or was his stone distinct from the interpreters? In any case, Wilford Woodruff claimed that Joseph Smith's stone was this very same stone of Gazelem, which Joseph discovered when he was assisting Willard Chase to dig a well in 1822. Chase said that as soon as Joseph discovered it, he placed it in his hat and put his face into the hat. Willard Stafford made this statement about the Smith family: "They would say, also, that nearly all the hills in this part of New York, were thrown up by human hands, and in them were large caves, which Joseph, Jr., could see, by placing a stone of singular appearance in his hat, in such a manner as to exclude all light; at which time they pretended he could see all things within and under the earth, -- that he could see within the above mentioned caves, large gold bars and silver plates -- that he could also discover the spirits in whose charge these treasures were, clothed in ancient dress" (Howe 1834, 237-38).

The importance of the interpreters can be better understood if we examine the sources from which the concept is derived. Although the Book of Mormon never refers to the interpreters as the Urim and Thummim, this term was repeatedly used by Joseph Smith and others. We do not know exactly what the Urim and Thummim were, or how they functioned; the Bible never gives a description of them. We do know that they were placed in the breastplate which Aaron wore when he officiated in the priest's office. The breastplate was made of linen and was part of the holy garments which the Lord commanded Moses to make, which included an ephod, girdle, robe, and mitre. The assumption that the Urim and Thummim were stones is derived from the description of the stones which adorned the ephod and breastplate. Upon the shoulders of the ephod were two onyx stones set in gold; upon each stone was engraved the names of six of the tribes of Israel. The breastplate had four rows of precious stones, three stones to a row, making twelve in all, with the name of one of the tribes engraved on each stone; these stones were also set in gold. The ephod and the breastplate were fastened together by means of rings and chains made of gold. The priest also wore a mitre, on the front of which was placed a plate of pure gold with the words HOLINESS TO THE LORD engraved on it.

Questions could be asked of the Urim and Thummim, but the Bible does not state explicitly how they gave an answer. Numbers says that Joshua "shall stand before Eleazar the priest, who shall ask counsel for him after the judgment of Urim before the Lord" (Num. 27:21). The Urim and Thummim would not always give a reply, however. Twice they refused to give an answer, when Saul sought counsel before battles with the Philistines. Although the Urim and Thummim were entrusted into the care of the tribe of Levi, Ezra 3:63 and Nehemiah 7:65 indicate that when the Hebrews returned from the Babylonian captivity, none of their priests possessed the Urim and Thummim.

Lucy Mack Smith gave a detailed description of both the interpreters and the breastplate. She said that the interpreters "consisted of two smooth three-cornered diamonds set in glass, and the glasses were set in silver bows, which were connected with each other in much the same way as old fashioned spectacles." Lucy also said that the breastplate was made of glistening metal: "It was concave on one side, and convex on the other, and extended from the neck downwards, as far as the centre of the stomach of a man of extraordinary size. It had four straps of the same material, for the purpose of fastening it to the breast, two of which ran back to go over the shoulders, and the other two were designed to fasten to the hips" (Lucy Smith 1880, 107, 113-114). Lucy's description of the breastplate suggests that it was the type worn in battle, rather than the linen breastplate of the high priest.

The interpreters seem to be related, at least in part, to the Grail romances. In his poem Parzival, Wolfram von Eschenbach stated that he learned about the secrets of the Grail from a man named Kyot: "The famous Master Kyot found the prime version of this tale in heathenish script lying all neglected in a corner of Toledo. He had had to learn the characters' A B C beforehand without the art of necromancy" (Von Eschenbach 1980, 232). According to Wolfram, the Grail was not a platter or chalice, but a stone. In his story, Parzival is directed to a hermit, from whom he receives information about the Grail. He learns that the stone is entrusted to the care of certain people: "'As to those who are appointed to the Gral, hear how they are made known. Under the top edge of the Stone an Inscription announces the name and lineage of the one summoned to make the glad journey. Whether it concern girls or boys, there is no need to erase their names, for as soon as a name has been read it vanishes from sight!'" (Von Eschenbach 1980, 240). Martin Harris and David Whitmer also stated that after the words which appeared on the seer stone were correctly read and recorded, they would vanish and new words would appear.

Joseph and Lucy Smith, Martin Harris, and David Whitmer all referred to the interpreters as spectacles. Although there are many references to magic stones in stories and legends, there seem to be only a few literary sources which suggest Joseph's spectacles. One of these is John Donne's Prologue to A Meeting in Hell. Donne begins by saying that he was in a state of ecstasy, and his soul was at liberty to wander through the heavens and survey the planets and stars. Then suddenly, he found himself in Hell: "In the twinkling of an eye, I saw all the rooms in Hell open to my sight. And by the benefit of certain spectacles, I know not of what making, . . . I saw all the channels in the bowels of the Earth; and all the inhabitants of all nations, and of all ages were suddenly made familiar to me" (Donne 1980, 40). We should recall that according to the testimony of William Stafford, Joseph claimed that with the aid of his stone "he could see all things within and under the earth, . . . that he could also discover the spirits in whose charge these treasures were, clothed in ancient dress."

Thus Joseph's interpreters seem to be an amalgam of Donne's spectacles, the Urim and Thummim, and Wolfram's Grail. This would account for the ambiguity in the descriptions of the manner in which the interpreters worked. If the interpreters could be used both for translating and for receiving visions, it is because they were a fanciful blending of different objects which functioned in different ways.

Another story about the discovery of a book and its translation by means of spectacles deserves our attention. In Gargantua and Pantagruel, Rabelais relates the discovery of a chronicle, which gave an account of the giants, who were the ancestors of Pantagruel and his father Gargantua.

It was found by Jean Audeau, in a meadow of his near the arch Gualeau, below l'Olive, on the way to Narsay. Here, as they were cleaning the ditches, the diggers struck with their picks against a great tomb of bronze . . . . Opening this tomb at a certain place which was sealed on the top with the sign of a goblet, around which was inscribed in Etruscan letters, HIC BIBITUR, they found nine flagons . . . and beneath the middle flagon lay a great, greasy, grand, grey, pretty, little, mouldy book . . . . In this book was found the said genealogy, written out at length in a chancery hand, not on paper, nor on parchment, nor on wax, but on elm-bark, so worn however by old age that scarcely three letters could be read. Unworthy though I am, I was called in to inspect it and, with much help from my spectacles, following that art by which letters can be read that are not apparent -- as Aristotle teaches -- I translated it . . . . (Rabelais 1955, 42)

Here we have a tale about the discovery of an ancient book containing the history of giants, which was translated with the aid of spectacles. We should recall that Martin Harris told Charles Anthon that the spectacles, which had been unearthed with the gold plates, were enormous, and Lucy Smith also said that the breastplate would fit a man of extraordinary size. These statements suggest that the spectacles and breastplate were originally in the possession of giants.

Lucy Smith's description of the stones comprising the interpreters is also of interest. She said that they were "two smooth three-cornered diamonds set in glass, and the glasses were set in silver bows." This description resembles another famous stone known as the Alfred Jewel. It was found in 1693 in Somerset, England, and was given to the University of Oxford in 1718. It is believed that the jewel was commissioned by King Alfred the Great in the ninth century. Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge give this description of the Alfred Jewel:

The jewel . . . comprises a pear-shaped gold frame enclosing a transparent piece of rock crystal superimposed on a figurative design in cloisonné enamel; a plate of gold is fixed at the back, with a plant- or tree-like design and basket-work hatching incised upon it; a gold extension in the form of an animal head is attached to the narrower end of the frame, and a short hollow tube or socket protrudes from the animal's mouth; a gold rivet passes through the socket. There is an inscription in openwork lettering around the edge of the frame, which reads: +AELFRED MEC HEHT GEWYRCAN ('Alfred ordered me to be made'). The enamel design represents, against a blue background, a half-length or seated male figure wearing a green sleeveless tunic and holding, one in each hand, the stems of objects that terminate with what appear to be flowers. (Keynes and Lapidge 1983, 203)

This pear-shaped rock crystal enclosed in a gold frame is similar to Lucy's three-cornered diamond set in glass and a silver bow. The inscription around the edge of the frame suggests the appearance of writing on the interpreters. The male figure showing through the crystal is suggestive of seeing a vision within the stone.

Keynes and Lapidge say further: "The rivet which passes through the socket protruding from the animal's mouth suggests that the jewel was originally fixed on the end of a thin rod . . . this rod may itself have been attached to something more substantial" (Keynes and Lapidge 1983, 204-205). According to Joseph Smith, the interpreters were supposed to be attached to a breastplate, although he never described the manner in which they were connected.

Some people have tried to identify Joseph's seer stone with the stone of Gazelem, and this stone too seems to have a biblical parallel. The purpose of the stone of Gazelem was to discover secret works, works of darkness, wickedness, and abominations. In Revelation 2:17, a white stone is referred to: "To him that overcometh will I give to eat of the hidden manna, and will give him a white stone, and in the stone a new name written, which no man knoweth saving he that receiveth it." In the verses preceding and following this, Revelation attacks those who call themselves apostles but are not, those who are the synagogue of Satan, those who hold the doctrine of Balaam and the teachings of the Nicolaitanes, and a woman named Jezebel, "which calleth herself a prophetess, to teach and to seduce my servants to commit fornication, and to eat things sacrificed unto idols" (Rev. 2:20). The reference to the white stone and the context within which it appears are certainly suggestive of the stone of Gazelem.

Our study has revealed a wealth of information about the sources of the Book of Mormon and its author. The author made a conscious attempt to create a sacred history for the Indians, in imitation of the Bible. He not only had a very thorough knowledge of the Bible, but he also relied upon the histories of Josephus, Bede, and Geoffrey of Monmouth, and the writings of Augustine. The author was certainly an enthusiastic student of Roman history and was familiar with the writings of Livy, Caesar, and Plutarch. In addition, he used the works of such writers as Tacitus, Procopius, and Sallust, as well as Herodotus and Virgil. Also he seems to have known Irish and Jewish myths and consulted miscellaneous books, such as Gulliver's Travels, and the Faerie Queene. The military commanders of the Book of Mormon are modeled after such heroes as Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar, and they employ tactics and build fortifications very similar to those of the Romans. The Book of Mormon is an extremely complex work, and it must have required a number of years for the author to weave together all of his material into a coherent history.

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