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Thus, Aeneas fled a city about to be destroyed, as Lehi led his family from Jerusalem into the wilderness. Aeneas built ships by Mount Ida near the shore of the Aegean Sea, as Nephi constructed a ship, after consulting with the Lord on the top of a mountain near a sea called Irreantum. Aeneas sought the Western Land at the bidding of his gods, just as Lehi's group sailed towards the promised land, led by the Lord. Aeneas encountered a storm, and his helmsman could not plot a course, just as Nephi's brothers did not know how to steer the ship when the compass stopped working and a storm arose. In both the Aeneid and the Book of Mormon, the ships are driven off course by a storm which lasts three days, but abates on the fourth day, after which both groups sail on towards their destinations. When Aeneas landed on Sicily, still short of his goal, we are told that seven years had already elapsed. Lehi's group had spent eight years in the wilderness, before they set sail.

Aeneas founded the city of Lavinium, where his son Ascanius was born. When he was older, Ascanius left Lavinium and established a new town, which was called Alba Longa. Ascanius was succeeded by his son Silvius, whose name was retained by the kings of Alba, just as the later emperors of Rome were called Caesar after Julius Caesar. Similarly, Nephi, the son of Lehi, left the original settlement in the New World and founded the city of Nephi. When Nephi grew old, he anointed a man as his successor: "Wherefore, the people were desirous to retain in remembrance his name. And whoso should reign in his stead were called by the people, second Nephi, third Nephi, and so forth, according to the reigns of the kings; and thus they were called by the people, let them be of whatever name they would" (Jacob 1:11). Thus, the Nephite kings retained the name of Nephi, just as the Romans commemorated the memories of Silvius and Caesar.

The building of Rome by Romulus, a descendant of Aeneas, was preceded by a quarrel with his brother Remus, as Nephi quarreled with his brothers before leaving them to found the city of Nephi. At his new site, Nephi built a temple and consecrated his brothers Jacob and Joseph to be priests and teachers. Romulus also dedicated a plot of ground for a temple of Jupiter, and king Numa later established the priesthood and religious rites of the early Romans.

When Nephi left the original settlement, he took with him the brass plates, which contained scriptures and genealogies. He also made other sets of plates, upon which the history of his people was inscribed for hundreds of years. Mormon tells us that his abridgment is only a hundreth part of all of the records which the Nephites kept. The brass plates of Laban recall the Twelve Tables of Roman law, which were inscribed on bronze tablets. And Seutonius says that when Rome burned in the first century A.D., Vespasian "undertook to replace the 3,000 bronze tablets which had been lost in the fire, hunting high and low for copies of the inscriptions engraved on them. Those ancient, beautifully phrased records . . . dated back almost to the foundation of Rome" (Suetonius 1979, 285).

The Book of Mormon contrasts the highly civilized Nephites with the wild Lamanites. The Lamanites wore animal skins and quickly became "an idle people, full of mischief and subtlety, and did seek in the wilderness for beasts of prey" (2 Nephi 5:24). The Nephites, on the other hand, constructed buildings, tilled the ground, worked with precious metals and made tools out of iron, copper, brass, and steel. There was almost constant enmity between the Nephites and the Lamanites, and the Lamnaites could be ferocious in battle. The Nephites wore thick clothing with breastplates and carried shields, but the Lamanites wore only animal skins around their loins, which left them exposed to attack. The civilized Romans too were often pitted against babaric tribes, such as the Gauls and Germans. Caesar says that the Germans moved about frequently and spent much of their time hunting; they were also respected by the Romans as ferocious warriors. The German tribes had a practice of "wearing only animal skins, so scanty that they leave a large part of the body naked" (Caesar 1985, 73). In addition, Plutarch says that Crassus commanded a cavalry composed of Gauls in a battle against the Parthians: "The small light spears of his Gauls came up against tough breastplates of raw hide or of steel, whereas they, with their unprotected and lightly armoured bodies, had to face the thrusts of long pikes" (Plutarch 1972, 145).

The Nephites were skilled in making all types of weapons, and the word "machinery" is used at Jarom 1:8, which is probably meant to assure us that the Nephites had attained the same level of skill as the famous military machines invented by Archimedes, which are referred to in the works of Polybius, Livy, and Plutarch. One of the crops which the Nephites cultivated was called "neas." It is mentioned along with corn, wheat, and barley, but is not otherwise identified. However, it is suggested by this passage from Herodotus: "other men live on wheat and barley, but any Egyptian who does so is blamed for it, their bread being made from spelt, or Zea as some call it" (Herodotus 1972, 143).

The Lamanites became increasingly wild and ferocious, and the wars which they fought with the Nephites resulted in the destruction of all but a few righteous Nephites. A group of the survivors, led by Mosiah, fled into the wilderness and found another people living in Zarahemla. After joining with the people of Zarahemla, Mosiah became the king of the land. The destruction of the wicked Nephites in the land of Nephi corresponds to the fall of the kingdom of Judah and the capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. The group which Mosiah led to Zarahemla represents the exiles whom Nebuchadnezzar carried to Babylon. Mosiah corresponds to Daniel, one of the young exiles educated by Nebuchadnezzar, whom Darius appointed to be president over the princes of his kingdom. Mosiah translated strange Jaredite characters engraved on a large stone, as Daniel interpreted the writing which appeared on the wall of Belshazzar's palace.

Mosiah was succeeded by his son Benjamin. A speech delivered by king Benjamin, before consecrating his son Mosiah II, resembles the words which Numa spoke, when the kingship was offered to him. Numa stated, "My birth was mortal; I was reared and instructed by men that are known to you. The very points of my character that are most commended mark me as unfit to reign . . a passion . . . for the society of men . . . whose lives in general are spent upon their farms and their pastures." His father took him aside and encouraged him to accept the kingship: "you will consider that government itself is a service of God" (Plutarch n.d., 78). Similarly, Benjamin said to the multitude, "I have not commanded you to come up hither that ye should fear me, or that ye should think that I of myself am more than a mortal man. But I am like as yourselves . . . . And even I, myself, have labored with mine own hands that I might serve you . . . . when ye are in the service of your fellow beings ye are only in the service of your God" (Mosiah 2:10-17). The text says further that Mosiah also tilled the earth (Mosiah 6:7). Thus Benjamin and Mosiah are patterned after Numa; they did not claim to be more than mortal men, they had a love for working the earth, and they looked upon kingship as service to God. Another model for Benjamin and Mosiah is Cincinnatus. Livy says that when Cincinnatus was approached by a delegation to accept the title of Dictator, he was working on his three-acre farm.. The Nephite kings who ruled the land of Zarahemla resemble Numa in another respect, for they were essentially foreigners, and Numa was a Sabine rather than a Roman. Furthermore, the two Mosiahs were seers and king Benjamin spoke with an angel, while Numa claimed that he was guided by the goddess Egeria in establishing religious rites and appointing priests.

A group of people led by Zeniff set out to reclaim territory in the land of Nephi. When the king of the Lamanites handed over the lands of Lehi-Nephi and Shilom, the people immediately began to repair the walls of the cities. Similarly, Cyrus allowed a group of exiles to return to Jerusalem with Sheshbazzar, a prince of Judah. Under the leadership of Zerubbabel and Jeshua, the people started to repair the walls of the city. Nehemiah arrived later, with the permission of Artaxerxes, and became governor over the land. Nehemiah is partially represented by Ammon, who went in search of the Zeniff colony, at the command of Mosiah II. When Ammon arrived in Lehi-Nephi, Limhi complained that "we are in bondage to the Lamanites, and are taxed with a tax which is grievous to be borne" (Mosiah 7:15). When Nehemiah reached Jerusalem, he also found that the governors who preceeded him had laid heavy burdens upon the people, and some had cried that "we bring into bondage our sons and our daughters to be servants, and some of our daughters are brought unto bondage already" (Neh. 5:5).

Noah, the son of Zeniff, was a wicked king. He took many wives and concubines, taxed the people, appointed new priests to replace those consecrated by his father, and undertook an ambitious program of constructing elegant buildings and ornamenting the walls of the temple. Much of this reflects the story of Solomon, who was famous both for his many wives and concubines and for the magnificent temple and palace which he built. After Solomon died, the people complained bitterly to Rehoboam of the heavy yoke which his father had put upon them. And when Jeroboam replaced Rehoboam, he appointed priests who were not Levites. Noah made special seats for the high priests: "And the seats which were set apart for the high priests, which were above all the other seats, he did ornament with pure gold; and he caused a breastwork to be built before them, that they might rest their bodies and their arms upon" (Mosiah 11:11). This description is suggested by Solomon's throne: "Moreover the king made a great throne of ivory, and overlaid it with the best gold. The throne had six steps and the top of the throne was round behind: and there were stays on either side on the place of the seat, and two lions stood beside the stays. . . . there was not the like made in any kingdom" (1 Kings 10:18-20).

King Noah also constructed towers: "he built a tower near the temple; yea, a very high tower, even so high that he could stand upon the top thereof and overlook the land of Shilom, and also the land of Shemlon, which was possessed by the Lamanites; and he could even look over all the land round about. And it came to pass that he caused many buildings to be built in the land Shilom; and he caused a great tower to be built on the hill north of the land Shilom" (Mosiah 11:12-13). Moses went to the top of Pisgah, where the Lord showed him all the land from Gilead to Naphtali, south to Zoar, and as far west as the sea. King Noah also reflects Uzziah, who built towers on the walls of Jerusalem and in the wilderness. Josephus tells us that on the third wall of Jerusalem was the tower Psephinus, which was seventy cubits high: "it both afforded a prospect of Arabia at sun-rising, as well as it did of the utmost limits of the Hebrew possessions at the sea westward" (Josephus 1974, 1:369). Three other large towers were built by king Herod.

Abinadi appeared among the people of Noah and prophesied that they would be brought into bondage because of their iniquity: "and the vultures of the air, and the dogs, yea, and the wild beasts, shall devour their flesh" (Mosiah 12:2). Abinadi has several biblical parallels. Ahijah prophesied the destruction of the house of Jeroboam: "Him that dieth of Jeroboam in the city shall the dogs eat; and him that dieth in the field shall the fowls of the air eat" (1 Kings 14:11). Elijah delivered an almost identical warning against Ahab and Jezebel. Noah cast Abinadi into prison and then summoned him before his priests, who questioned Abinadi in the interpretation of the scriptures. Ahab also threw Micaiah into prison for prophesying his defeat in battle, and Abinadi's confrontation with the priests recalls the scribes and priests who questioned Jesus.

When his people revolted against him, king Noah fled to the tower near the temple. He was about to be slain by a man named Gideon, when he saw from the tower that a Lamanite army was invading the land; therefore, Gideon allowed him to escape. Similarly, when Jehu came with a company of men to Jezreel to kill king Joram, a watchman on the tower saw them approaching. In addition, Saul and his men were about to capture David, when a messenger informed Saul that the Philistines were making a raid on the land, and Saul gave up his pursuit of David.

Noah commanded his men to flee into the wilderness with their women and children: "And it came to pass that the Lamanites did pursue them, and did overtake them, and began to slay them. Now it came to pass that the king commanded them that all the men should leave their wives and their children, and flee before the Lamanites. Now there were many that would not leave them, but had rather stay and perish with them. And the rest left their wives and their children and fled" (Mosiah 19:10-12). Josephus relates a similar incident in The Jewish War. When John of Gischala fled from the Romans, he took a considerable number of men with him, together with their families.

And indeed, though the man was making haste to get away, and was tormented with fears of being a captive, or of losing his life, yet did he prevail with himself to take out of the city along with him a multitude of women and children, as far as twenty furlongs; but there he left them as he proceeded farther on his journey, where those that were left behind made sad lamentations . . . . And indeed there was a miserable destruction made of the women and children; while some of them took courage to call their husbands and kinsmen back, and to beseech them with the bitterest lamentations, to stay for them; but John's exhortation, who cried out to them to save themselves, and fly away, prevailed. (Josephus 1974, 1:289-90)

The people who remained in the city, after John fled, pleaded with Titus and the Romans to spare them, as the people whom Noah left behind sought mercy from the Lamanites. Titus sent horsemen to pursue after John, as Gideon sent men to search for Noah and his men. Those of Noah's people who had fled swore "that they would return to the land of Nephi, and if their wives and their children were slain . . . that they would seek revenge, and also perish with them" (Mosiah 19:19). John also said "that if the Romans should seize upon those whom they left behind, they would be revenged on them for it" (Josephus 1974, 1:290).

Noah's priests went into hiding and captured some young Lamanite women at a place where they had gathered to sing, dance, and make merry. This incident has parallels in both the Bible and Roman history. In the Book of Judges, men from the tribe of Benjamin were told that in order to obtain wives they should go to a place near Shiloh and lie in wait for young women to come into the vineyards to dance (Judg. 21:21). Similarly, after Romulus founded the city of Rome, he realized that there were not enough women among the inhabitants, and other cities rejected his suggestion of intermarriage. Accordingly, Romulus invited the neighboring communities to a festival, to give his men an opportunity to abduct young Sabine women to be their wives.

When Noah's people were attacked, they sent out their daughters to plead with the Lamanites. The Lamanites were charmed by the women and allowed the people to repossess their land. When the Romans were attacked by the Sabines, their Sabine wives pleaded with the combatants to stop killing each other. A peace was concluded, and the two states were united.

Limhi, who became king of the Zeniff colony, had sent forty-three men into the wilderness to find the land of Zarahemla. They became lost and instead discovered the land of the Jaredites, where they found the bones of men and beasts and the ruins of buildings. They brought back with them twenty-four gold plates filled with engravings. Here again there is a reference to Numa. A number of ancient writers related versions of a legend concerning Numa. Pliny the Elder wrote:

Cassius Hemina, a historian of many years ago states, in his Annals, IV, that Gnaeus Terentius, a clerk, when digging his land on the Janiculum, unearthed a chest that held the body of Numa, king of Rome, and some books of his. This happened 535 years after Numa's reign. . . .

. . . In the middle of the chest there had been a square stone bound all round with cords covered in wax, and the three books had been placed on this stone. . . . The books in question contained the philosophical doctrines of Pythagoras. Hemina also says that the books had been burnt by the praetor Quintus Petilius because of their contents.

Piso the censor records the same story in his Commentaries, I, but he says there were seven volumes of pontifical law and the same number relating to Pythagorean philosophy. Tuditanus in his Book XIII states that there were twelve volumes of Antiquities of Man, and Antias says in his Book II that there were twelve volumes on Pontifical Matters in Latin, and the same number in Greek comprising Doctrines of Philosopohy. Antias also mentions in his Book III a resolution of the Senate to the effect that these volumes should be burnt. (Pliny 1991, 179)

According to Plutarch, king Numa ordered that when he died, his body should be placed in one stone coffin and his sacred books in another.

Valerius Antias writes that the books which were buried in the aforesaid chest or coffin of stone were twelve volumes of holy writ and twelve others of Greek philosophy, and that about four hundred years afterwards . . . in a time of heavy rains, a violent torrent washed away the earth, and dislodged the chests of stone; and, their covers falling off, one of them was found wholly empty, without the least relic of any human body; in the other were the books before mentioned . . . . (Plutarch n.d., 92)

Thus the discovery of the twenty-four gold plates parallels the finding of the twenty-four volumes of Numa's sacred writings.

Mosiah II translated the gold plates, which Limhi's men found, and made the record public. This provides another parallel with the sacred writings of Numa, for Livy relates, concerning Ancus Marcius, the grandson of Numa: "In the belief, therefore, that nothing was more important than the restoration of the national religion in the form established by Numa, he instructed the pontifex to copy out from his commentaries the details of all the various ceremonies and to display the document in public" (Livy 1960, 69).

The gold plates also gave information about the secret oaths and covenants of the Jaredites, which Alma later instructed his son Helaman to withhold from public knowledge, so that the people would not fall into darkness. Plutarch says that when the praetor Petilius read Numa's books, he believed that "it was not fit for their contents to be made public to the people; whereupon the volumes were all carried to the Comitium, and there burnt" (Plutarch n.d., 92). Augustine, quoting Varro, says that Numa's books were accidentally unearthed by a ploughman, who showed them to the praetor. The praetor reported the find to the senate, which ordered that the books be burned. Augustine speculates that

Numa Pompilius himself, led on by an unlawful curiosity, had discovered certain secrets of the demons which he himself committed to writing to assist his memory. . . . he did not venture to pass on the information to anyone; and yet he could not bring himself to suppress it by erasing or destroying the manuscript in some way. He did not want anyone to know, for he shrank from passing on a lesson in corruption . . . . The senate . . . feared that human curiosity would be all the more keen to search for something of which a glimpse had now been afforded. And so they ordered the outrageous documents to be consigned to the flames . . . . (Augustine 1984, 295).

The finding of the gold plates in the time of Mosiah has several biblical parallels. Hilkiah the high priest discovered the book of the law, which had been lost, and showed it to Shaphan the scribe, who read it to king Josiah. Josiah desired verification of the book and sent a group of men to Huldah the prophetess. She declared that the kingdom of Judah would become a desolation and a curse, because the people had forsaken God. Mosiah was himself a seer, and the gold plates which he translated told of another land which became a desolation and a curse, because of the iniquity of the people.

At a later time Ezra brought forth the book of the law, after the Jews had returned to Jerusalem from the Babylonian captivity. It is said that Ezra reproduced the book through the inspiration of the Lord, because it had again been lost. Both Josiah and Ezra read the book to a gathering of the people, and these events are very similar to a gathering summoned by king Benjamin. The inhabitants of Zarahemla were instructed to assemble at the temple.

And it came to pass that when they came up to the temple, they pitched their tents round about . . . . every man having his tent with the door thereof towards the temple, that thereby they might remain in their tents and hear the words which king Benjamin should speak unto them; for the multitude being so great that king Benjamin could not teach them all within the walls of the temple, therefore he caused a tower to be erected, that thereby his people might hear the words which he should speak unto them. (Mosiah 2:5-7)

Benjamin and the people entered into a covenant to obey the commandments of God and to take upon themselves the name of Christ. Similarly, Josiah and all of the inhabitants of Jerusalem gathered to the house of the Lord, where Josiah read the book of the covenant to them, and they then all assented to keep the commandments that were written in the book (2 Kings 23:3).

Ezra also read the book of the law to a congregation of men and women, and just as king Benjamin had a tower constructed, Ezra too "stood upon a pulpit of wood, which they had made for the purpose" (Neh. 8:4). On the second day, the people found written in the law a description of the feast of booths, and they made themselves booths on the roofs of their houses and in the courts of the temple. Benjamin's people had set up tents around the temple.

Alma, who had been one of king Noah's priests, fled to the waters of Mormon, where he gathered a number of followers, baptized, and ordained priests. The record of Alma is patterned after the story of David. Alma fled from king Noah, just as David fled from king Saul. David went to Ahimelech, the priest at Nob and later escaped to the cave of Adullam, where about 400 men gathered to him. The people who gathered to Alma at the waters of Mormon numbered about 450. David joined Samuel at Ramah, and they both went to Naioth, where there was a company of prophets, and the Spirit of God came upon them. There was also in the area the great well of Sechu. Similarly, when Alma baptized his follwers and ordained priests at the waters of Mormon, where there was a fountain of pure water, the Spirit of the Lord was poured out upon them.

Alma's baptism of a man named Helam parallels Philip's baptism of an Ethiopian eunuch. Alma said to the people:

Behold, here are the waters of Mormon (for thus were they called) and now, as ye are desirous to come into the fold of God . . . what have you against being baptized in the name of the Lord . . . . And now it came to pass that Alma took Helam, he being one of the first, and went and stood forth in the water . . . . both Alma and Helam were buried in the water; and they arose and came forth out of the water rejoicing, being filled with the Spirit. (Mosiah 18:8-14)

Philip found the Ethiopian on the way to Gaza:

And as they went on their way, they came unto a certain water: and the eunuch said, See, here is water; what doth hinder me to be baptized? And Philip said, If thou believest with all thine heart, thou mayest. . . . and they went down both into the water, both Philip and the eunuch; and he baptized him. And when they were come up out of the water, the Spirit of the Lord caught away Philip, that the eunuch saw him no more: and he went on his way rejoicing. (Acts 8:36-39)

After Mosiah II sent Ammon to find the Zeniff colony, Limhi and his people escaped from the Lamanites and traveled to Zarahemla. And after the city of Helam was taken over by the priests of Noah, Alma also led a group of his people to Zarahemla. Alma and his people were able to escape from Helam, because "the Lord caused a deep sleep to come upon the Lamanites" (Mosiah 24:19). Similarly, when David encountered Saul and his men in the wilderness of Ziph, he was able to get away undetected, "for they were all asleep; because a deep sleep from the Lord was fallen upon them" (1 Sam. 26:12). Alma represents Ezra, who received permission from Artaxerxes to lead a group of Jews to Jerusalem. Ezra took Levite priests with him and held the position of scribe in Jerusalem. Alma, who had been the high priest in Helam, was also appointed as high priest in Zarahemla.

After Alma arrived in Zarahemla, he established churches throughout the land, which were seven in number. Then there arose a group of dissenters, who persecuted the believers. This recalls the Revelation of John, which is addressed to the seven churches and refers to the heresy of the Nicolaitans. The persecution in Zarahemla became so severe that Mosiah II issued a decree, "that there should not any unbeliever persecute any of those who belonged to the church of God. And there was a strict command throughout all the churches that there should be no persecutions among them, that there should be an equality among all men" (Mosiah 27:2-3). Christians suffered persecution under the Roman emperors Diocletian and Maximin, until Constantine gained power and issued an imperial ordinance which granted religious liberty and equality: "No one whatever was to be denied the right to follow and choose the Christian observance or form of worship . . . . so that every man may have permission to choose and practise whatever religion he wishes" (Eusebius 1965, 402).

The four sons of Mosiah II and Alma, the son of Alma, were wicked and sought to lead people astray, much like the sons of Eli and Samuel. Alma II is patterned after Paul, who was a leader in the persecution of the Christians. Alma and the sons of Mosiah experienced a conversion similar to that of Paul. An angel appeared to them:

And so great was their astonishment, that they fell to the earth, and understood not the words which he spake unto them. Nevertheless he cried again, saying: Alma, arise and stand forth, for why persecutest thou the church of God? . . . And now Alma and those that were with him fell again to the earth, for great was their astonishment . . . . And now the astonishment of Alma was so great that he became dumb, that he could not open his mouth; yea, and he became weak, even that he could not move his hands, therefore he was taken by those that were with him, and carried helpless, even until he was laid before his father. . . . And it came to pass after they had fasted and prayed for the space of two days and two nights, the limbs of Alma received their strength, and he stood up and began to speak unto them . . . . (Mosiah 27:12-23)

Acts gives this account of Paul's conversion:

And as he journeyed, he came near Damascus: and suddenly there shined round about him a light from heaven: and he fell to the earth, and heard a voice saying unto him, Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou me? . . . And the men which journeyed with him stood speechless, hearing a voice, but seeing no man. And Saul arose from the earth; and when his eyes were opened, he saw no man: but they led him by the hand, and brought him into Damascus. And he was three days without sight, and neither did eat nor drink. . . . And immediately there fell from his eyes as it had been scales: and he received sight forthwith, and arose, and was baptized. (Acts 9:3-18)

Like Paul, Alma and the sons of Mosiah became powerful preachers and successful missionaries, and like Paul and the other apostles, Alma and Amulek faced trials and imprisonment.

About 475 years after Lehi's group reached the New World, Mosiah II persuaded his people to abolish the office of king and to choose, by the voice of the people, wise judges to administer the law. Alma II became the first chief judge, but he later chose another man to fill the office, while he retained the position of high priest. The Romans were ruled by kings for 244 years, until Tarquin was overthrown by Brutus. The Romans then instituted the procedure of popularly electing two consuls, who ruled by the authority of law. Brutus became the first consul to hold the rods, the symbol of power: "His first act was to make the people, while the taste of liberty was still fresh upon their tongues, swear a solemn oath never to allow any man to be king in Rome" (Livy 1960, 106). Alma encouraged the people of Helam to make a similar commitment, saying, "And now as ye have been delivered by the power of God out of these bonds . . . even so I desire that ye should stand fast in this liberty wherewith ye have been made free, and that ye trust no man to be a king over you" (Mosiah 23:13).

Mosiah's speech, urging the reign of the judges, bears similarities to the words of Otanes, recorded by Herodotus, when he argued for the establishment of democratic government in Persia. Mosiah also espoused a doctrine which seems to be a marvelous anticipation of the political theory of Rousseau: "Now it is not common that the voice of the people desireth anything contrary to that which is right; but it is common for the lesser part of the people to desire that which is not right; therefore this shall ye observe and make it your law - to do your business by the voice of the people" (Mosiah 29:26). Rousseau distinguished between the general will and the will of all.

It follows from what has gone before that the general will is always right and tends to the public advantage; but it does not follow that the deliberations of the people are always equally correct. . . . the people is never corrupted, but it is often deceived, and on such occasions only does it seem to will what is bad.

There is often a great deal of difference between the will of all and the general will; the latter considers only the common interest, while the former takes private interest into account, and is no more than a sum of particular wills . . . . (Rousseau 1960, 338)

Thus Mosiah's "voice of the people" corresponds to Rousseau's "general will," while "the lesser part of the people" would be "a sum of particular wills."

According to the Book of Mormon, the Nephites had a well developed legal system, including "lawyers, who were hired or appointed by the people to administer the law at their times of trials, or at the trials of the crimes of the people before the judges" (Alma 10:14). The Romans were, of course, noted for their jurists and achievements in the realm of law. The famous compilation of laws commissioned by Justinian formed the basis for many modern legal systems. The laws instituted by Mosiah provided for the payment of judges, and the Book of Mormon outlines a monetary system based upon standard measures of gold and silver. However, these measures were also comparable to measures of grain, for the text says: "A senum of silver was equal to a senine of gold, and either for a measure of barley, and also for a measure of every kind of grain" (Alma 11:7). Xenophon described a similar system, when grain was purchased for Cyrus's army: "one could get a capithe of wheat flour or pearl barley for four sigli. The siglus is worth seven and a half Attic obols, and the capithe is equal to three pints" (Xenophon 1972, 76). Caesar also describes the monetary system of the Britons: "for money they use bronze or gold coins, or iron ingots of fixed standard weights" (Caesar 1985, 93).

The deaths of Alma I and Mosiah II correspond to the passing of Samuel and Saul. Both Mosiah II and Saul instituted changes in government, but of opposite kinds.

Although two of the most important characters in the Book of Mormon are called Alma, this is a very unusual name. The Hebrew word "almah" means a young woman, but no one in the Bible is named Alma. The Spanish word "alma" means soul. There is, however, a probable source for the name - Spenser's Faerie Queene. King Mosiah gave Alma II custody of the brass plates, the plates of Nephi, the twenty-four gold plates, and the interpreters. These plates contained genealogies and scriptures, a history of the Jaredites, and the records kept by the Nephites. Similarly, in the Faerie Queene, Prince Arthur and Sir Guyon reach the House of Temperance, which is presided over by a woman named Alma. Within the rooms of this building lived three wise men, who acted as counselors to Alma. The first could see the future, the second advised about the present, and the third recorded his visions of the past. The chamber of the third was filled with ancient books and parchment scrolls. Among these records, Arthur and Guyon found two books called Briton Monuments and Antiquities of Faerie Land. The first contained a history of Britain, including a legend about Brute, a descendant of Aeneas, and a group of Trojans who sailed to Britain. It also contained an account of the introduction of Christianity into Britain by Joseph of Arimathea, who traveled there, carrying the Holy Grail with him. The second book contained a record of the elves, including Elfin, who was king over India and America.

When a man named Korihor asked Alma for a sign of God's existence, he was struck dumb and had to communicate in writing. This mirrors the account of Zechariah, who asked Gabriel how he could know that Elizabeth would bear a son. Gabriel told him that he would become dumb, and Zechariah had to communicate by means of a writing tablet. Korihor was cast out and went to the Zoramites in Antionum, "and as he went forth amongst them, behold, he was run upon and trodden down, even until he was dead" (Alma 30:59). A man who offended Elisha met a similar fate: "and the people trode upon him in the gate, and he died, as the man of God had said" (2 Kings 7:17).

After Alma became chief judge, a man named Amlici gained a number of followers, who wanted to establish him as king over the land. Amlici was rejected by the majority of the people, but his supporters made him their ruler. The Amlicites then took up arms against the Nephites and met them in battle at the hill Amnihu near the valley of Gideon. Similarly, after the death of Saul, David was anointed as king over Judah, but Abner took Ishbosheth, the son of Saul, to Mahanaim and made him king over Israel. The two factions met at the pool of Gibeon, where a fierce battle ensued. Abner was defeated and was pursued by Joab and Abishai until the setting of the sun, when they reached the hill Ammah near the wilderness of Gibeon. Alma's men pursued the Amlicites all day from the hill Amnihu, until they reached the valley of Gideon, where they pitched their tents for the night.

Alma went to Ammonihah to preach, but the people reviled him, spit upon him, and cast him out of the city. As Alma was journeying toward Aaron, an angel appeared to him and told him to return and preach in Ammonihah. Similarly, Sarah, Abraham's wife, dealt so harshly with Hagar that she fled into the wilderness, but an angel appeared to Hagar and told her to return. 1 Kings 13 provides another parallel in the story of a man of God who traveled to Bethel. There he prophesied, "Behold, a child shall be born unto the house of David, Josiah by name" (1 Kings 13:2). In Gideon, Alma had foretold that the Son of God "shall be born of Mary, at Jerusalem which is the land of our forefathers" (Alma 7:10). The man of God left Bethel: "So he went another way, and returned not by the way that he came to Bethel" (1 Kings 13:10). When Alma returned to Ammonihah, "he entered the city by another way, yea, by the way which is on the south of the city of Ammonihah" (Alma 8:18). As he entered the city, Alma met a man named Amulek and requested something to eat. Amulek replied, "I am a Nephite, and I know that thou art a holy prophet of God, for thou art the man whom an angel said in a vision: Thou shalt receive. Therefore, go with me into my house and I will impart unto thee of my food" (Alma 8:20). Similarly, an old prophet who lived in Bethel set out after the man of God. When he found the man, he said, "I am a prophet also as thou art; and an angel spake unto me by the word of the Lord, saying, Bring him back with thee into thine house, that he may eat bread and drink water" (1 Kings 13:18).

Alma and Amulek preached together in Ammonihah, where they met with a great deal of opposition. This recalls Paul and Barnabas, who had to flee from Iconium and Lystra, because the people tried to stone them. Alma and Amulek werre questioned by Antionah, a chief ruler in Ammonihah, about their beliefs concerning the resurrection. The people seized Alma and Amulek, bound them, and took them before the chief judge. Similarly, when Paul was dragged out of the temple in Jerusalem, he was placed under arrest by a Roman tribune and was brought before the chief priests and council. Paul claimed that he was being put on trial for his hope in the resurrection. The high priest Ananias commanded that Paul be struck on the mouth, just as the chief judge smote Alma and Amulek on the cheeks. Alma and Amulek were forced to witness the martyrdom of people who believed in their teachings, as Paul was present at the stoning of Stephen.

Three days after Alma and Amulek were cast into prison, many lawyers, judges, priests and teachers came in to question them. Later they were again visited by the chief judge, together with many teachers and lawyers, who mocked at and struck them. Then the Lord gave Alma and Amulek strength to break their bonds, and an earthquake caused the walls of the prison to fall, killing many people, including the chief judge. Similarly, Peter and John were arrested by priests, the captain of the temple, and Sadducees. The following day they were questioned by the rulers, elders, and scribes and Annas the high priest. Later they were again arrested by the high priest and Sadducees and were put into prison, but an angel opened the prison doors and brought them out. Paul and Silas were also imprisoned in Phillippi, but there was a great earthquake, which shook the foundations of the prison, and their bands were loosed. At another time Peter was thrown into prison by Herod, but again an angel appeared, and the chains fell off of Peter's hands. An angel smote Herod, and he died.

While preaching in Ammonihah, Amulek encountered a man named Zeezrom, who is evidently patterned after Simon the magician. Zeezrom offered Amulek a quantity of silver to deny the existence of God. Simon also offered money to Peter and John, if they would grant him the power to confer the Holy Ghost by the laying on of hands. Zeezrom lay sick with a burning fever and was visited and healed by Alma: "Zeezrom leaped upon his feet, and began to walk; and this was done to the great astonishment of all the people" (Alma 15:11). Similarly, Peter healed a lame man: "And he leaping up stood, and walked . . . walking, and leaping, and praising God. And all the people saw him walking . . . and they were filled with wonder and amazement at that which had happened unto him" (Acts 3:8-10). Zeezrom was converted and baptized, just as Simon believed and was baptized.

Peace in Zarahemla was shattered by a Lamanite attack. The city of Ammonihah was completely destroyed and inhabitants of the neighboring city of Noah were taken captive by the Lamanite army. A man named Zoram consulted Alma, who inquired of the Lord and told Zoram, "Behold, the Lamanites will cross the river Sidon in the south wilderness, away up beyond the borders of the land of Manti. And behold there shall ye meet them, on the east of the river Sidon, and there the Lord will deliver unto thee thy brethren who have been taken captive by the Lamanites" (Alma 16:6). Similarly, the men of Ammon, Moab and Mount Seir gathered together to oppose Jehoshaphat, who sought the guidance of the Lord. The Spirit fell upon Jahaziel, who said, "To morrow go ye down against them: behold, they come up by the cliff of Ziz; and ye shall find them at the end of the brook, before the wilderness of Jeruel" (2 Chron. 20:16). In addition, David found that Ziklag had been burned by the Amalekites and all of its inhabitants had been taken captive. David inquired of the Lord by means of the ephod, and the Lord answered, "Pursue: for thou shalt surely overtake them, and without fail recover all" (1 Sam. 30:8). The Book of Mormon says that after the inhabitants of Ammonihah were killed, their dead bodies were heaped up upon the earth. The men of Ammon and Moab completely destroyed the inhabitants of Seir and then killed each other; Jehoshaphat found the ground covered with dead bodies.

Ammonihah is portrayed in the Book of Mormon as a proud and sinful city, a center for a heretical religion known as the order of Nehor. After Ammonihah was destroyed, it remained desolate. Ammonihah and Noah parallel the cities of Capua and Nola in Italy. Capua figured prominently in the Roman war with Hannibal. Livy says, "Capua was a city of great wealth and luxury, and had long prospered as the favourite of fortune; but there was general corruption there, due, more than to anything else, to the licence of the common people, who enjoyed unlimited freedom" (Livy 1965, 168). After the city of Capua went over to the side of Hannibal, Hannibal marched on Nola, but was turned away by a Roman army, which came to the aid of the city. Similarly, a Nephite army pursued the Lamanites, after they passed by Noah, and freed the captives. After Capua fell to the Romans, the Romans considered destroying it completely, but decided to reserve it merely for farming, just as Ammonihah remained desolate for a number of years. The attack on Ammonihah and Noah also parallels the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah and the revenge which Gideon took upon the cities of Succoth and Penuel.

Ammon and the other three sons of Mosiah set out on a mission to the Lamanites in the land of Nephi. Similarly, Jehoshaphat sent princes and Levite priests to teach in the cities of Judah. As Ammon and his brethren traveled through the wilderness toward Lamanite territory, they began to lose their courage, for "they had undertaken to preach the word of God to a wild and a hardened and a ferocious people" (Alma 17:14). After they had fasted and prayed, the Lord sent his Spirit to comfort them and give them courage to continue their mission. This resembles Bede's account of Augustine's mission to Britain. Augustine traveled with serveral other monks: "Having undertaken this task in obedience to the Pope's command and progressed a short distance on their journey, they became afraid, and began to consider returning home. For they were appalled at the idea of going to a barbarous, fierce, and pagan nation" (Bede 1968, 66). However, after Pope Gregory sent them a letter, urging them to continue, Augustine and his companions gained courage and proceeded to Britain.

After reaching the borders of Lamanite lands, Ammon and his brothers separated to go to different cities. When Ammon arrived in Ishmael, he was taken to king Lamoni, who asked Ammon if he wanted to dwell with his people and take one of Lamoni's daughters as a wife. Ammon declined taking a wife and asked only to be a servant. He was given the duty of driving the king's flocks to the watering place, but one day the animals were scattered by a group of Lamanites. Ammon slew some of the men and drove off the rest, and he and the other servants returned to king Lamoni. Similarly, when Moses fled from Pharaoh, he went to Midian and sat by a well, where the daughters of the priest came to draw water for their father's flock. Some shepherds attempted to drive them away, but Moses came to their aid. Moses lived with the priest and took one of his daughters as a wife.

Lamoni and his servants were so impressed by Ammon's seeming invincibility that they thought that he must be the Great Spirit. Similarly, when Paul healed a man in Lystra, the people thought that he and Barnabas must be the gods Zeus and Hermes in the likeness of men.

When Ammon questioned Lamoni about God, he discovered that Lamoni did not know what "God" meant. His instructions, leading to Lamoni's conversion, resemble passages in Robinson Crusoe:

And Ammon began to speak unto him with boldness, and said unto him: Believest thou that there is a God? And he answered, and said unto him: I do not know what that meaneth. And then Ammon said: Believest thou that there is a Great Spirit? And he said, Yea. And Ammon said: This is God. And Ammon said unto him again: Believest thou that this Great Spirit, who is God, created all things, which are in heaven and in the earth? And he said: Yea, I believe that he created all things which are in the earth; but I do not know the heavens. And Ammon said unto him: The heavens is a place where God dwells and all his holy angels. And King Lamoni said: Is it above the earth? And Ammon said: Yea, and he looketh down upon all the children of men . . . . (Alma 18:24-32)

. . . I was not wanting to lay a foundation of religious knowledge in his mind; particularly, I asked him one time, who made him. The poor creature did not understand me at all, but thought I had asked who was his father; but I took it by another handle, and asked him who made the sea, the ground we walked on, and the hills and woods; he told me it was one old Benamuckee, that lived beyond all. He could describe nothing of this great person but that he was very old . . . . I asked him if the people who die in his country went away anywhere; he said yes, they all went to Benamuckee . . . .

From these things I began to instruct him in the knowledge of the true God. I told him that the great Maker of all things lived up there, pointing up towards Heaven. . . . He listened with great attention, and received with pleasure the notion of Jesus Christ being sent to redeem us . . . he told me one day that if our God could hear us up beyond the sun, He must needs be a greater God than their Benamuckee, who lived but a little way off . . . . (Defoe 1980, 212-13)

Ammon and king Lamoni departed for Middoni to deliver Aaron and his brethren from prison, but met the father of Lamoni, who was king over all the land. He said to Lamoni, "Why did ye not come to the feast on that great day when I made a feast unto my sons, and unto my people?" (Alma 20:9). He commanded Lamoni to slay Ammon, and when Lamoni refused, he attempted to kill Ammon himself. Similarly, Saul told his son Jonathan and his servants to kill David, but Jonathan came to David's defence. Later Saul tried to kill David by throwing his spear at him. After David went into hiding, Saul discovered that he was not coming to the feast at the new moon, and he asked Jonathan, "Wherefore cometh not the son of Jesse to meat, neither yesterday, nor to day?" (1 Sam. 20:27). When Saul saw that Jonathan was lying to him, he called Jonathan "Thou son of the perverse rebellious woman," and he told him that neither he nor his kingdom would be established. Similarly, Lamoni's father called Ammon "one of the children of a liar," and Ammon made the king promise that Lamoni would retain his kingdom.

After Aaron succeeded in converting the king of the land of Nephi, the king sent a decree throughout the whole land, which granted to Ammon and his brethren free access to the synagogues, temples, and sanctuaries, where they were allowed to preach without being harmed. Similarly, Bede reports that Augustine was received hospitably by king Ethelbert, who gave Augustine and his companions freedom to preach. After the king was himself converted, he gave them even greater freedom, not only to preach, but to build churches, as Ammon and his brethren established churches throughout the land of Nephi.

Alma and his son Corianton went on a mission to the Zoramites in Antionum; howerver, Corianton wandered off to a place called Siron. Alma chides him, saying, "thou didst go on unto boasting in thy strength and thy wisdom. And this is not all, my son. Thou didst do that which was grievous unto me; for thou didst forsake the ministry, and did go over into the land of Siron among the borders of the Lamanites, after the harlot Isabel" (Alma 39:2-3). This is an obvious reference to Samson, who also boasted of his strength, and against the wishes of his parents, sought a Philistine wife and fell in love with Delilah, who lived in the valley of Sorek.

The Book of Alma draws heavily upon the Gallic War of Julius Caesar and Livy's histories. For example, the sons of Mosiah converted many people, who became known as the Anti-Nephi-Lehies. The Amalekites began to persecute and destroy the Anti-Nephi-Lehies, who therefore resolved to journey to the land of Zarahemla. Ammon led them into the wilderness and then continued on to Zarahemla, where he consulted with the chief judge. The chief judge sent a proclamation throughout the land, asking the people if they were willing to admit the Anti-Nephi-Lehies into the land. They responded that they would give up the land of Jershon for Ammon's people to dwell in. Similarly, Caesar says that two German tribes, the Usipetes and the Tencteri, had been harassed for several years by attacks from the Suebi and therefore crossed the Rhine in large numbers. The Germans sent envoys to Caesar with this message: "'we came to Gaul not from choice, but because we were driven out of our homes. If you Romans wish to be on friendly terms with us . . . assign to us land to live in . . . .' I told them they could, if they wished, settle in the country of the Ubii, whose envoys were then in our camp" (Caesar 1985, 75).

At the age of 25, Moroni assumed the position of chief captain over the Nephite armies. The name Moroni is of interest, because Caesar frequently refers to the Morini, a tribe living on the northeast coast of France, who were sometimes enemies and sometimes allies of the Romans. When Caesar began his campaign against Britain, he launched his ships from the territory of the Morini. The Morini are also mentioned in Tacitus's Histories, in the Aeneid, and in Bede's History of the English Church and People.

The first of Moroni's major engagements involved a Lamanite force, under the leadership of Zerahemnah, which had penetrated as far as the borders of Jershon. However, Moroni's forces were so well armed that the Lamanites retreated and turned toward Manti. When Moroni learned from Alma that the Lamanites were headed toward Manti, he took a more direct course and arrived in Manti ahead of the Lamanites. Similarly, when some of the leading men of Nola sent word to Marcellus that Hannibal was approaching the city, he covered the distance from Cales to Suessula in one day and in the same night sent an army to Nola, which arrived before Hannibal.

At Manti, Moroni ordered all of the people in that part of the land to gather together to battle the Lamanites. He then deployed his men in a valley to the west of the river Sidon and south of the hill Riplah on the east bank of the river, where they waited for the Lamanites to arrive. Caesar's battle with the Nervii provides a parallel. In this case, it was the Nervian forces which had taken up a position on the upper slope of a hill near the river Sambre and awaited the arrival of the Romans. When the Lamanites passed the hill Riplah and started to cross the river, a Nephite force led by Lehi came out of its concealed position and attacked the Lamanites in the rear. The Lamanites turned about to fight, but many were killed, and the rest fled toward the river. When they crossed the river, they were met on the other side by Moroni's army, which began to slay them. Caesar says that part of his army crossed the river Sambre and started to battle the main army of the Nervii, but were driven back. When the Nervii tried to cross the river, large numbers were killed by the main body of Caesar's army.

The Lamanites began to fight with greater resolve: "when the men of Moroni saw the fierceness and the anger of the Lamanites, they were about to shrink and flee from them. And Moroni, perceiving their intent, sent forth and inspired their hearts with these thoughts . . . . And they began to stand against the Lamanites with power" (Alma 43:48, 50). Caesar's Twelfth and Seventh legions were out-flanked by the Nervii, and many of them were killed or were intent on fleeing: "I recognized that this was a crisis . . . . I called out to all the centurions by name and shouted encouragement to the rest of the men. . . . My arrival gave the troops fresh hope; their determination was restored" (Caesar 1985, 53).

Zerahemnah's men were finally surrounded by the armies of Lehi and Moroni and were struck with terror. However, Moroni was merciful and commanded his men to stop slaying the Lamanites. He then said to Zerahemnah, "deliver up your weapons of war unto us, and we will seek not your blood, but we will spare your lives, if ye will go your way and come not again to war against us" (Alma 44:6). The Romans nearly wiped out the Nervii, but Caesar too was generous in victory: "Wishing it to be seen that I treated unfortunate suppliants mercifully, I took the greatest care to keep them safe. I told them to keep their lands and oppida, and I gave orders to the neighbouring tribes to refrain from doing them any damage or injury" (Caesar 1985, 54).

Moroni said to Zerahemnah, "ye shall not depart except ye depart with an oath that ye will not return again against us to war." Many of Zerahemnah's men "came forth and threw down their weapons of war at the feet of Moroni, and entered into a covenant of peace. And as many as entered into a covenant they suffered to depart into the wilderness" (Alma 44:11,15). However, Zerahemnah again attacked the Nephites with the remainder of his men. Although the Lamanites fought valiantly, they were cut down by the Nephites. Seeing that they were all about to be destroyed, Zerahemnah's men surrendered their weapons. Similarly, Caesar told the Aduatuci, the allies of the Nervii, "that there would be no question of my accepting their surrender unless they handed over their weapons. I would do for them what I had done for the Nervii and forbid the neighbouring tribes to do them any harm once they had surrendered to Rome." The Aduatuci complied: "They threw a great number of weapons down from the wall into the ditch in front of their oppidum" (Caesar 1985, 56). However, some of them kept back their weapons and then attacked the Romans; after 4,000 of them were killed, they submitted to the Romans.

The Book of Alma records that "the number of their dead was not numbered because of the greatness of the number; yea, the number of their dead was exceedingly great" (Alma 44:21). Caesar says that the Nervii were nearly exterminated; out of a fighting force of 60,000, only 500 survived.

Before Zerahemnah surrendered, he rushed toward Moroni with his sword raised, but a soldier knocked it to the ground and cut off part of Zerahemnah's scalp. This is similar to an incident related by Plutarch about Alexander the Great, when he fought with two Persian commanders: "While he was engaged with Rhoesaces, Spithridates rode up on the other side, and rising in his stirrups brought down a barbarian battle-axe with all his strength upon Alexander's head. The stroke split the crest of his helmet, sheared away one of his plumes, and all but cleft the head-piece, in fact the edge of the axe penetrated it and grazed the hair on the top of Alexander's head. But just as Spithridates raised his arm for another blow, 'Black' Cleitus, as he was called, struck first and ran him through with a spear . . . ." (Plutarch 1973, 269). There is also a biblical parallel. When David fought the Philistines, he was saved by Abishai: "And Ishbibenob . . . he being girded with a new sword, thought to have slain David. But Abishai the son of Zeruiah succoured him, and smote the Philistine, and killed him" (2 Sam. 21:16-17).